Boreal Biota & Biology Programme - Writing Guidelines

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Types of academic writing

3. The writing process

4. Referring to information sources

5. Avoiding plagiarism

6. Assessment criteria

7. Sources of help and further information

1. Introduction

This brief handbook provides general writing guidelines for students in the BBE Programme. It outlines the types of academic writing you may be instructed to prepare for written assignments and offers advice on how to get started and subsequently develop your academic writing style. The important issue of making use of published information sources without committing plagiarism is covered, and the criteria for assessing writing assignments are finally summarised.

Hyperlinks to helpful Internet sites are provided throughout the text and further sources of advice and information are listed at the end.

2. Types of academic writing

In any piece of academic writing, the aim is not simply to state facts but to also demonstrate that you understand what you are writing about. After gathering the background information for your assignment from various sources and making sense of this information in your own mind, you then need to present and explain the information on paper in a clearly structured manner.

There are various ‘types’ of academic writing that differ in the way information is structured and expressed. Those that you may be required to prepare in the BBE programme include the following:

2.1. Scientific Report

A scientific paper is a written report describing original research results. A standard format is used, in which the author presents the research in an orderly, logical manner. This doesn't necessarily reflect the order in which the work was carried out. The format is:

Title – concisely and accurately reflecting the work carried out.

Abstract – see below.

Introduction – setting the scene for the study, providing background information and stating the aims.

Materials and Methods – describing how the work was carried out in sufficient detail for the reader to be able to replicate the study.

Results (with Tables and Figures) – summarising the results and highlighting the key findings.

Discussion – interpreting the main findings of the study.

References – listing the cited literature in alphabetical order.

Further information on writing scientific reports can be found via the following links:

http://aerg.canberra.edu.au/pub/aerg/edupaper.htm

http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/ug/research/paper.html

2.2. Abstract

An abstract is a condensed version of a longer piece of writing, such as a journal article, that highlights the major points covered, concisely describes the content and the scope of the writing, and reviews the writing’s contents in abbreviated form. Abstracts are typically very short, sometimes limited to 100-200 words in length. The types of abstract and how to write one effectively are summarised at the following sites:

http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/bizwrite/abstracts.html

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/abstrax.html

2.3. Summary

A summary is a re-statement, in a shortened form, of the main ideas in a text. According to Swales and Feak (1994), a good summary has three principle components:

1. It should offer a balanced coverage of the original.

2. It should present the source material in a neutral fashion.

3. It should condense the source material and be presented in the summary writer’s own words.

In some cases you will be required to prepare a discussion summary that incorporates both what you have read (e.g. a journal article) and the subsequent class discussion of the text.

2.4. Essay

An academic essay is a piece of continuous prose that normally tries to answer a question or a set of related questions. After introducing these questions at the beginning of the essay, arguments are then developed and supported with appropriate examples from various literature sources. Some general advice on academic essay-writing is provided at the following site:

http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/essay.html

3. The writing process

 3.1.  Getting started

You should not attempt to write a ‘perfect’ assignment in the first draft; rather, you should aim initially for a rough draft that you can return to and subsequently revise. For many writers, just getting started can be the most difficult part.

Begin by putting down on paper or on the computer screen your initial thoughts or ideas. You might start with a list of topics you intend to cover that you can then build on. If writing a scientific report, you could start with the easiest section (usually the Materials and Methods).

Write in short simple sentences, in English, and don’t worry about grammar or punctuation. Short sentences can later be linked together where appropriate to improve the flow (e.g. The plants were weighed. The biomass was then determined. → The plants were weighed and the biomass determined).

Use simple verbs such as to be, have, get, show, find out. You can go back to these in subsequent drafts and replace them with more formal and precise verbs (e.g. it is simpler to write “there were many insect species in the forest”; you can later change this to “the forest contained many insect species”).

If you find it easier, write in the language of speech. Do not attempt to structure your sentences or organise your paragraphs.

3.2. Revising the text

In later drafts there are certain aspects that you can focus on to improve the overall style of your text.

3.2.1. Academic verbs

Verbs used in informal English tend to be very general and somewhat imprecise in meaning. For example, the verb to get could mean to become (to get better), to receive or acquire (to get a degree) or to collect (to get some samples). Academic verbs, by contrast, have very precise meanings (e.g. to examine, quantify, assess, evaluate).

Everyday spoken English also makes frequent use of phrasal or prepositional verbs (verb + preposition), whereas in academic writing a single verb alternative is used to achieve a more formal style.

(Less formal) The project looked at the rate at which nutrients build up in a lake

(More formal) The project examined the rate at which nutrients accumulate in a lake.

3.2.2. Formal grammar and style

The following are recommendations for maintaining a formal academic writing style (modified from Swales and Feak, 1994):

1. Avoid contractions (won’t, can’t, it’s, don’t); use the full form instead (will not, cannot, it is, do not).

2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms:

not ... any » no

not ... much » little

not ... many » few

The study didn’t provide any significant results. » The study provided no significant results.

The hypothesis did not receive much support. » The hypothesis received little support.

The lake didn’t contain many fish species. » The lake contained few fish species.

Wherever possible, replace “not” in negative structures to improve strength:

The experiment did not succeed. » The experiment failed.

The measurements were not accurate. » The measurements were inaccurate.

Significant differences were not found. » No significant differences were found.

3. Limit the use of “run on” expressions, such as “and so forth” and “etc.”

Habitat fragmentation impedes the movement of birds, mammals, insects etc. » Habitat fragmentation impedes the movement of birds, mammals, insects and other animals.

4. Avoid addressing the reader as “you”.

You can see the results in Table 1. » The results can be seen in Table 1.

3.2.3. Conciseness

Academic writing is characteristically concise, avoiding unnecessary words. Editing your text for conciseness is a highly efficient way to improve the overall style. Some common examples of wordiness and suggestions for avoiding them are provided at the following sites:

http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/wordines.html

http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/wordiness.html

3.2.4. Cohesion

Order the information logically within sentences so that one sentence then leads on naturally to the next. Organise the sentences into paragraphs where each paragraph covers a single point, issue or argument. The order of your paragraphs (and hence the points you make) will partly be determined by the type of writing (e.g. introduction sections within research reports typically follow a set pattern of steps or “moves”).

Try to make your main points early in the text, rather than starting with minor issues and saving the most important to the end. Academic writing should not read like a detective story, forcing the reader to put the pieces of information together and draw the final conclusions.

3.3. Accuracy

Grammar and punctuation errors do not necessarily lead to misunderstanding of the text. However, if they occur frequently they can distract the attention of the reader. Common problems arise with the use of articles and prepositions and the location of adverbs within a sentence. The conventions for presenting numerical information, units of measure and symbols should also be followed.

3.3.1. Articles

Most names of things, places and people do not take an article (e.g. I live in Helsinki). However, place names that include a countable noun (i.e. something that you can count) do take a definite article (e.g. the United States, the European Union, the Sahara Desert).

Particular things will often take definite article, whereas things referred to in a general sense do not (e.g. This book is about insects; This book is about the insects you can find in Finland).

Uncountable nouns, when used in a general sense, do not have an article (e.g. Plants need nitrogen; Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plants).

3.3.2. Prepositions

These are words like at, to, in and over. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information about things like time, place and direction. As you become familiar with the vocabulary of your field it is important to learn not just the words, but also the prepositions that go with them.

For example:

Dependent on (but independent of)

Associate with

Variation in

Similar to (but different from)

Characteristic of

An excellent source of help with prepositions is the Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner's English Dictionary  (4th Edition. London: Harper Collins Publishers).

Prepositions of time often cause problems (e.g. I am at the beginning of my project, which will end in December). Some guidance on these prepositions can be found at:

http://grammar.englishclub.com/prepositions-at-in-on-time.htm

3.3.3. Adverbs

Adverbs of frequency (e.g. sometimes, always, often, never) and some adverbs such as also, almost, nearly) need to be placed next to the appropriate verb in the sentence. Some rules on adverb placement can be found by following the link below:

http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs-frequency.htm

The adverb “also” is very common and often incorrectly placed:

(Incorrect) Also in Finland this is a serious problem.

(Correct) In Finland this is also a serious problem

3.3.4. Punctuation

A summary of punctuation marks is provided at the site below; it important to use them correctly. Commas and hyphens are often lacking where they are needed, or included where they are unnecessary.

English Writing: Punctuation (EnglishClub.com)

3.3.5. Units of measure and symbols

Use only numerals with a unit symbol (e.g. m, kg, %, C). If you have to write out the number, also write out the unit: do not mix the two (e.g. four metres or 4 m; not 4 metres)

Never begin a sentence with a numeral (e.g. 76 nesting sites were inspected). Either write the number out in full (Seventy-six nesting sites…) or avoid beginning with it (Altogether, 76 nesting sites…).

The decimal sign in English texts is a point (3.27 cm) not a comma (3,72 cm).

Hyphenate units of measure preceding the word that the units refer to (e.g. a 2-hr study; a 5-ml sample).

Note that a space separates a number and its unit symbol (12 kg, 25 ºC) with one exception: there is no space between a number and the percentage symbol (95%).

4. Referring to information sources

If you gain the information you use from a published source then you must give a reference for that source.

4.1. Citing references

In your text, where you refer to another person’s work, include the name of the author and the publication date:

e.g. Willmot (1980) found that hedges next to roads contain more woody species than those between fields.

OR

In some areas, hedges between roads have been found to contain more woody species than those between fields (Willmot, 1989).

Where there are two authors, the names of both are given. However, if there are three or more authors then cite only then name of the first author, followed by “et al.” (e.g. Smith et al., 1999). Where you cite multiple reference sources together, list them in chronological order (e.g. Wilcove et al., 1986; Saunders et al., 1991; Opdam et al., 1994; Robinson et al., 1995).

4.2. Compiling a bibliography

When compiling a list of references you have used to acquire information for your assignment or have cited in your text, it is important that these references are complete and accurate. Any reader will then have the necessary details about a book or article to trace it.

There are several ways of presenting references in a bibliography, but it is important that you are consistent in your style. Below is one common method:

Journal / periodical article

i.          Name(s) of author(s) or editor(s) (ed(s))

ii.          Year of publication (in parentheses)

iii.         Title of article

iv.         Title of periodical (in italics)

v.         Volume number(s) (in bold)

vi.         Pages

For example:

Hanski, I., Alho, J. & Moilanen, A. (2000). Estimating the parameters of survival and migration of individuals in metapopulations. Ecology 81, 239-251.

Book

i.          Name(s) of author(s) or editor(s) (ed(s))

ii.          Year of publication (in parentheses)

iii.         Title of book (in italics)

iv.         Edition, if not the first (e.g. 2nd ed.)

v.:         Place of publication : publisher

vi.         Series, if any, and volume number, all in parentheses

For example:

Hanski, I. (1999). Metapopulation Ecology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Article or chapter in book or conference proceedings

i.          Name(s) of author(s) or editor(s) (ed(s))

ii.          Year of publication (in parentheses)

iii.         Title of article or chapter

  In:

iv.         Author(s) or editor(s) of book

v.         Title of book (in italics)

vi.         Edition, if not the first

vii.        Volume number and part where applicable

viii.       Page numbers in parentheses

ix.         Place of publication: publisher.

For example:

Ims, R.A. (1995). Movement patterns related to spatial structures. In: L. Hansson, L. Fahrig & G. Merriam (Eds), Mosaic landscapes and ecological processes (pp. 85-109). London: Chapman and Hall.

4.3. Citing electronic sources

Information is increasingly becoming available via electronic media such as online journals and electronic databases. For tips on how to cite references from electronic sources follow the link below to the Internet pages of the American Psychological Association:

http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

5. Avoiding plagiarism

When using information from published sources, you must not directly copy sentences or phrases. To do so is to commit plagiarism, which is illegal. Even if you slightly reorganise the words or cite the author you are still plagiarising the original text.

Three ways in which you can legitimately incorporate the work of other writers into your own text are through the use of quotations, paraphrasing and summarising. The differences between these and the ways in which they are used are explained at the following site:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_quotprsum.html

Direct quotations are rarely used in scientific writing. However, paraphrasing and summarising are extensively used in reviewing the literature (e.g. in the introduction to a research article). Further information on paraphrasing and an example exercise are provided on the following page:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html

6. Assessment criteria

When assessing your writing assignment, the course tutor will be paying attention to some of the following aspects:

The relative weighting given to each of the assessment criteria in deriving the final mark will depend on the type of writing assignment and its aims, and also on the preferences of the tutor.

7. Sources of help and further information

Writing Tools & Online Reference Sources:

An introduction to Internet-based tools and academic writing web sites that can help you to improve your writing skills in English is provided here.

Books:

Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. (2000). English in Today’s Research World: a Writing Guide. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Additional Internet Links:

Academic writing (literature, research, reviews):

http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/

Advice on academic writing:

http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html

SBC Academic Resource Center | Links to Academic & Writing Centers:

http://www.arc.sbc.edu/links.html